 |
Grammar Basics
by Marci Bethel
Effective writing is grammatically correct,
consistent, and concise. In addition, the language and syntax contribute
to clarity and understanding. This document provides information and
guidelines on the following topics:
Language
Use clear, precise language. This section
provides guidelines on the following topics.
Jargon
If the reader is
unfamiliar with a term, or if a term has different meanings to different
people, jargon obscures meaning. In those cases, use standard English
terms rather than jargon. If you must use a jargon term that may be
unclear, define the term with its first usage. However, if a jargon term
is commonly used by the intended audience, and if it is more clear and
precise than an alternate word or phrase, use the jargon (RAM or ROM,
for example).
Syntax
The following problem areas deserve special
attention.
Subject/Predicate Agreement
Generally, problems with subject/predicate
agreement arise when the subject is placed far from its predicate, as in
the following example.
New information on peripherals, power
loads, I/O sections, and read/write channels have been
incorporated.
Placing the subject and predicate closer
together solves the problem.
New information has been added on peripherals....
Using active voice also solves the
problem.
We have added information on peripherals....
A similar problem occurs when a prepositional
phrase separates the predicate from the subject.
Each of these items are
available.
Since each is the subject, the verb
must be is. In many cases, each isn't necessary to the
meaning of the sentence, so you can reword the sentence like
this.
These items are available.
In some cases, however, each is
essential to the sentence. You can read the sentence without the
prepositional phrase (of these items) to be sure the subject and
verb are in agreement (each...is), or rewrite the sentence
without the prepositional phrase.
Each item is available.
Consistent Tense
Unnecessary shifts in tense often arise in
writing procedures in which an action causes some result.
When you press enter, the program will
assume a value of zero and issues a warning message.
Typically, if you use present tense, your
writing is both more concise and less susceptible to errors.
When you press enter, the program
assumes a value of zero and issues a warning message.
Parallel Construction
Similar ideas are best presented by similar
grammatical constructions. Although errors in this area can occur
anywhere, they are especially noticeable in lists. For
example,
- Construction of a widget
- Wiring the widget
- Test procedures
should be rewritten:
- Building a widget
- Wiring a widget
- Testing a widget
Punctuation
This is a brief overview of general rules of
punctuation. Refer to Punctuation Basics — Commas and
Semicolons for more information.
Colons
A colon normally follows a introduction to a
formal listing, but is not necessary after every as follows, the
following, or similar introductions. A colon must be used when the
introduction is an incomplete sentence, but is optional following a
complete sentence.
A colon in the middle of a sentence
introduces either a brief, informal listing or a clarification of the
preceding thought. It is generally incorrect to use a colon following a
verb (except follow). And colons are often used incorrectly after
prepositions, separating the preposition from its object.
Commas
Use commas to separate elements in a series.
The kit includes the widget, the widget
software, and this manual.
Commas are often used incorrectly after
subject phrases, separating the subject from the predicate. For example,
Engineers who have completed this
course, are eligible for the next one.
should not have a comma after the word
course.
Quotation Marks
Commas and periods go inside quotation marks;
semicolons and colons go outside.
Refer to Appendix A, "Widget List," for
additional information.
Additional information is located in
Appendix A, "Widget List."
Semicolons
The semicolon is most frequently used to
combine two independent clauses into a single sentence without using a
conjunction.
A batch program can run interactively;
an interactive program can run in batch.
It can also be used to combine two
independent clauses with certain conjunctive adverbs (e.g., however,
therefore, thus).
The team won; however, they are still
in second place.
The semicolon is also used to separate
elements of a series when those elements contain embedded
commas.
Sales offices are located in Hartford,
CT, for the Northeast; Atlanta, GA, for the Southeast; and Dallas, TX,
for the West.
Numbers
Spell out these numbers:
- numbers zero to ten
- a number that is the first word of a sentence
- approximate numbers (for example, More
than two hundred people are expected to attend.)
Use numerals for these numbers:
- numbers greater than ten
- units of time, measurement, and money
- chapter, page, figure, and table numbers
- percentages (for example, 5% not five percent)
- numbers used in a paragraph that also
contains numbers stated as numerals
If two numbers appear together in the same
phrase, write one as a figure and one as a word (for example, two
1/2-inch tapes, 500 fifty-character records).
Acronyms and Abbreviations
Define an acronym the first time it is used.
If it is repeated throughout several pages, define it the first time you
use it in each page. Spell out the words first, then enclose the acronym
in parentheses. Throughout the rest of the page, you can use the acronym
alone.
First use:
Using the Test Pattern Development
Language (TPDL) commands....
Subsequent uses:
Using the TPDL commands....
Abbreviations are handled much like acronyms.
Use only standard abbreviations listed in dictionaries and other
references, spell out the term (followed by the abbreviation in
parentheses) the first time it is used. You can use the abbreviation
alone throughout the rest of the chapter.
Words and Expressions
The definitions in this section should help
clarify the proper use of the following "problem" words and expressions.
- affect, effect
- amount, number
- assure, ensure, insure
- comprise, compose, include
- e.g., i.e.
- etc.
- example, sample
- less, fewer
- that, which
- affect, effect
- Generally, affect is used as a
verb (meaning "to have an influence on") and effect, as a
noun (meaning "result" or "outcome").
This utility affects the overall
design.
To see the effect of this utility, check the ....
Effect can also be used as a verb
(meaning "to bring about"). It is used correctly as a verb in the
following example.
The new manager has effected major
changes in the department.
- amount, number
- Use amount to refer to things that
can be measured — things involving a unified mass. Use number
to refer to things that can be counted as individual units.
...the amount of the
bill...
...the number of
programs...
- assure, ensure, insure
- Assure means "to impart trust."
Only a person can assure or be assured. Ensure means "to make
sure or certain."
Insure means, primarily, "to safeguard
or indemnify against a loss." These three words are used correctly in
the following example.
I assure you that I will ensure that
your car is insured.
- comprise, compose, include
- Comprise means "to contain or
encompass." A body comprises, or "contains," its elements. The
elements constitute or "make up," the body. Comprise cannot be used in
the passive voice (Saying "The book is comprised of five chapters" is
incorrect. The chapters do not comprise the book; rather, the book
comprises the parts.)
Compose means "to make; to
form." Elements compose ("make up") a body. Compose may be used in the
passive: "The Union is composed of fifty states."
Include refers to a part of the
content. Unlike comprise, it suggests that only some of the components
are mentioned.
The book includes three chapters on
linguistics.
means that there are more than three
chapters, but three of them are on linguistics. However,
The book comprises three chapters on
linguistics.
means that there are only three chapters,
and all three of them are on linguistics.
- e.g., i.e.
- These two Latin abbreviations are often
confused.
The abbreviation e.g. (exempli gratia, meaning
"for example") introduces one or more examples. The abbreviation i.e.
(id est, meaning "that is") introduces an explanation of a
previous statement. Use the English phrases (for example and
that is) without hesitation. They are always acceptable
in text.
If you prefer to use the abbreviations, do
not begin a sentence with them. Type them in lowercase letters,
separated by periods, preceded by a comma, semicolon, or parenthesis,
and followed by a comma, as shown here:
, e.g.,
; e.g.,
(e.g.,
, i.e.,
; i.e.,
(i.e.,
- etc.
- Use this abbreviation (for et
cetera, meaning "and others") sparingly. Generally, you can simply
list items separated by commas, without a conjunction, instead of
using etc.
(schematic capture, design
verification, netlisting)
- example, sample
- Example is always a noun.
Sample can be a noun, adjective, or verb.
Figure 2-1 is an example of the
report.
Figure 2-1. Sample Report
- less, fewer
- Less is a measure of amount.
Fewer is a measure of number.
The new product requires less
maintenance because it has fewer parts.
This product has less fat
and fewer calories.
- that, which
- That introduces something
essential to the meaning of the sentence; the clause defines or limits
what precedes it.
Which introduces something that
can be removed without changing the meaning of the sentence; the
clause is descriptive, but not essential to the meaning of the
sentence. Which clauses are enclosed in commas.
We selected the computer that
achieved the best performance on the benchmark test.
We selected the XYZ computer, which
achieved the best performance on the benchmark test.
Compound Words — Spelling and Hyphenation
Open compounds are word combinations that
denote a single concept but are spelled as separate words. These
compounds are typically used as nouns.
data processing, computer application
Closed compounds are closely related to open
compounds. These word combinations were originally spelled as separate
words, but are now spelled as one word.
online, benchmark, filename
Word combinations that modify or describe
another word are generally hyphenated.
user-supplied logic
cell-based design
Do not use a hyphen to combine a
second word to an adverb that ends in ly.
highly regarded person
Prefixes are generally joined to their root
words without a hyphen. However, use a hyphen in the following
circumstances.
- If omitting the hyphen yields a word that
could be confused with another word.
re-cover, recover
re-mark, remark
- If omitting the hyphen yields a word with
a doubled vowel, making the word difficult to read. There are
exceptions (like reentry) to this exception; check your dictionary.
de-emphasize, semi-independent
- If the prefix is attached to a proper noun
or numeral.
non-IBM, pre-1980
- If the prefix is a single letter joined to
a word.
X-shaped, I-beam
- If the prefix is ex or self.
ex-customer, self-employed
References:
A Manual of
Style. 13th ed., rev. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press,
1982
Alley, Michael, The Craft of Scientific Writing,
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Brusaw, Alred, and
Oliu, Handbook of Technical Writing, 2nd ed. New York: St.
Martin's Press, 1982
Printer-friendly
(PDF) version of this page.
|
|
